Effects of phthalate metabolite mixture exposure on mouse oocyte development.

Phthalates are pervasive endocrine-disrupting chemicals widely used in consumer products. The wide use of many phthalates results in chronic human exposure to complex mixtures rather than single compounds. Despite extensive studies on individual compounds, the combined effects of phthalate metabolites on oogenesis remain poorly understood. Here, we developed a precise microinjection-based single-oocyte toxicological assay to examine the impact of a defined phthalate metabolite mixture on meiotic progression. Phthalate mixture exposure markedly impaired oocyte maturation, as most oocytes failed to extrude the first polar body. Mechanistic analyses revealed severe meiotic defects, including disrupted spindle morphology, chromosome misalignment, disorganized actin cytoskeleton, and impaired mitochondrial function, accompanied by excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and DNA damage. Single-cell transcriptomic profiling further identified differentially expressed genes enriched in biological processes related to exocytosis, secretory pathway regulation, and cytoskeletal organization, as well as in MAPK, JAK-STAT, cGMP-PKG, and GnRH signaling pathways that are essential for follicular development and oocyte maturation. Together, these findings demonstrate that combined phthalate exposure directly compromises female gamete quality and underscore the importance of evaluating mixture effects when assessing risks to women's reproductive health.