Complications of lower urinary tract surgery in small animals.

Surgical procedures of the lower urinary tract are commonly performed in small animal practice. Cystotomy for removal of uroliths and urethrostomy diverting urine outflow due to urethral obstruction are the most commonly performed surgical procedures of the bladder and urethra respectively. Surgical procedures of the lower urinary tract are typically associated with few complications, including leakage of urine, loss of luminal diameter (stricture or stenosis), urine outflow obstruction, tissue devitalization, denervation, urinary incontinence, urinary tract infection, and death. Complications can result from inappropriate or inadequate diagnosis, localization, and surgical planning; failure to respect regional anatomy, and other causes.