Cardiovascular Implications in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD): A State-of-the-Art Review.

Preclinical animal models are essential for evaluating the biological performance, safety, and translational potential of bone regeneration strategies before human application. Because no single species can fully replicate human skeletal biology, careful selection of an appropriate model is necessary to generate reliable and clinically meaningful evidence. This narrative review summarizes the characteristics, advantages, and limitations of commonly used experimental species, with particular emphasis on their anatomical and biomechanical similarity to humans and their suitability for modeling localized and systemic bone-healing conditions. Rodent models are widely used for early-stage screening because they are cost-effective, genetically manipulable, and well-suited for mechanistic studies. However, their limited cortical thickness, strong intrinsic healing capacity, and lack of true Haversian remodeling reduce their translational applicability for evaluating large defects or load-bearing sites. Rabbit models provide an intermediate platform for testing medium-sized defects, with more clearly defined critical-size thresholds and partial Haversian remodeling. Dogs offer clinically realistic surgical handling, human-like bone remodeling, and the ability to standardize complex intraoral defects, although their use is declining because of ethical and regulatory considerations. Minipigs and pigs show the closest correspondence to human craniofacial bone structure, density, and biomechanics, making them highly valuable for late-stage translational validation. However, their strong healing potential and large body size require carefully standardized defect designs and rigorous experimental controls. Across all species, acute versus chronic defects, infected versus noninfected environments, and systemically healthy versus compromised conditions substantially influence healing outcomes. Standardized defect dimensions, appropriate observation periods, and robust quantitative assessment methods are critical for ensuring reproducibility. An understanding of species-specific healing patterns and methodological considerations enables investigators to design preclinical experiments that more closely reflect clinical scenarios and support the development of predictable regenerative therapies.