Modeling bladder cancer in the laboratory: Insights from patient-derived organoids.

Bladder cancer (BCa) is the most common malignant tumor of the urinary system. Current treatments often have poor efficacy and carry a high risk of recurrence and progression due to the lack of consideration of tumor heterogeneity. Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) are three-dimensional tissue cultures that preserve tumor heterogeneity and clinical relevance better than cancer cell lines. Moreover, PDOs are more cost-effective and efficient to cultivate compared to patient-derived tumor xenografts, while closely mirroring the tissue and genetic characteristics of their source tissues. The development of PDOs involves critical steps such as sample selection and processing, culture medium optimization, matrix selection, and improvements in culture methods. This review summarizes the methodologies for generating PDOs from patients with BCa and discusses the current advancements in drug sensitivity testing, immunotherapy, living biobanks, drug screening, and mechanistic studies, highlighting their role in advancing personalized medicine.