Multiple Glacial Refugia and Complex Postglacial Dynamics of Primula sikkimensis (Primuaceae) in the Heterogeneous Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) is a global biodiversity hotspot where Quaternary climatic oscillations profoundly shaped the evolution of endemic alpine flora. Understanding how genetic diversity and structure in these species responded to past climate change is crucial for deciphering regional evolutionary mechanisms. Using chloroplast and nuclear genome data of 958 samples from 48 populations, we evaluated the genetic diversity and population structure of Primula sikkimensis. We then investigated the lineage differentiation and dynamics of species by combining an Approximate Bayesian Computation procedure and species distribution modeling. Our study indicates that P. sikkimensis maintained separate glacial refugia in the Hengduan Mountains and eastern Himalayas during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Our results suggest that postglacial range expansions onto the inner QTP plateau were accompanied by gene flow arising from both intraspecific secondary contact between previously isolated populations and interspecific hybridization events, which collectively enhanced genetic diversity and adaptive capacity in plateau populations. Our findings underscore the critical role of postglacial population dynamics and gene flow in shaping genetic diversity and adaptive potential of alpine endemics like P. sikkimensis, highlighting evolutionary responses to Quaternary climate change on the QTP.