Treatment of nonunion and malunion of trauma of the foot and ankle using external fixation.

Salvage of nonunion and malunion of trauma of the foot and ankle is often challenging surgery. Internal fixation provides the mainstay of most orthopedic surgeons' treatment of these conditions. Patient systemic factors, local factors, and the complex nature of these often multiplanar deformities may make external fixation a more viable option. This article provides an overview of the principles and results of the use of external fixation.