Buprenorphine Therapy for Opioid Use Disorder.

Opioid misuse, including the use of heroin and the overprescribing, misuse, and diversion of opioid pain medications, has reached epidemic proportions in the United States. As a result, there has been a dramatic increase in opioid use disorder and associated overdoses and deaths. Addiction is a chronic brain disease with a genetic component that affects motivation, inhibition, and cognition. Patient characteristics associated with successful buprenorphine maintenance treatment include stable or controlled medical or psychiatric comorbidities and a safe, substance-free environment. As a partial opioid agonist, buprenorphine has a ceiling effect that limits respiratory depression and adds to its safety in accidental or intentional overdose. Buprenorphine and combinations of buprenorphine and naloxone are generally well tolerated; adverse effects include anxiety, constipation, dizziness, drowsiness, headache, nausea, and sedation. Family physicians who meet specific requirements can obtain a Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 waiver by notifying the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration of their intent to begin dispensing and/or prescribing buprenorphine. Medication-assisted treatment with buprenorphine is as effective as methadone in terms of treatment retention and decreased opioid use when prescribed at fixed dosages of at least 7 mg per day; dosages of 16 mg per day are clearly superior to placebo. Sporadic opioid use is not uncommon in the first few months of medication-assisted treatment and should be addressed by increased visit frequency and more intensive engagement with behavioral therapies. Follow-up visits should include documentation of any relapses, reemergence of cravings or withdrawal, random urine drug testing, pill or wrapper counts, and checks of state prescription drug database records.