Sex-related differences in contemporary biomarkers for heart failure: a review.

The use of circulating biomarkers for heart failure (HF) is engrained in contemporary cardiovascular practice and provides objective information about various pathophysiological pathways associated with HF syndrome. However, biomarker profiles differ considerably among women and men. For instance, in the general population, markers of cardiac stretch (natriuretic peptides) and fibrosis (galectin-3) are higher in women, whereas markers of cardiac injury (cardiac troponins) and inflammation (sST2) are higher in men. Such differences may reflect sex-specific pathogenic processes associated with HF risk, but may also arise as a result of differences in sex hormone profiles and fat distribution. From a clinical perspective, sex-related differences in biomarker levels may affect the objectivity of biomarkers in HF management because what is considered to be 'normal' in one sex may not be so in the other. The objectives of this review are, therefore: (i) to examine the sex-specific dynamics of clinically relevant HF biomarkers in the general population, as well as in HF patients; (ii) to discuss the overlap between sex-related and obesity-related effects, and (iii) to identify knowledge gaps to stimulate research on sex-related differences in HF.