Emergency department pain management: beyond opioids.

Pain is a common factor in many emergency department visits. While opioids remain a mainstay of treatment for many patients, prescription-opioid overuse and misuse have become epidemic in the United States. A lack of clear understanding of the pain management options available contributes to this problem, resulting in opioid overuse and over-prescription. National guidelines and consensus statements emphasize the importance of knowing nonopioid pharmacological and nonpharmacological options for treating patients with acute pain. This evidence-based review summarizes the pathophysiology of pain and pain syndromes and provides recommendations for a variety of nonopioid treatment options.