Graphene-based biosensors for PSA.

Prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality among men worldwide. Early and accurate detection is critical for effective treatment and improved patient outcomes. Although prostate-specific antigen (PSA) remains the primary biomarker for screening, conventional assays often lack the sensitivity and specificity required for reliable diagnostics. In this review, we evaluate the emerging role of graphene-based biosensors in PSA detection and their potential to transform prostate cancer diagnostics. Graphene's exceptional properties including a high surface-to-volume ratio and outstanding electrical conductivity make it an ideal platform for biosensing applications. We classify graphene-based sensors into three categories: electrochemical sensors, field-effect transistors (FETs), and fluorescence-based sensors, and discuss the mechanisms by which each detects PSA. Strategies for integrating graphene with other nanomaterials to enhance analytical performance are highlighted. We also assess the clinical feasibility of these platforms, emphasizing their rapid response times, high accuracy, and minimally invasive operation. Finally, we discuss current challenges and future perspectives for translating graphene-based PSA biosensors from laboratory research to routine clinical practice.