Recent insights on the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic approaches for cardiac cachexia.

Cardiac cachexia (CC) affects a large proportion of patients with chronic heart failure, a major public health issue in western countries. The pathophysiology of CC is complex and multifactorial, resulting from several factors interacting in a complex system with metabolic, immune and neurohormonal consequences, triggered to protect the heart and the circulation from damage. Despite the adverse clinical effects, CC diagnosis is not straightforward and has not specifically been targeted, with therapeutic strategies only comprising interventions with appetite stimulants, and anti-inflammatory substances. Here we review the molecular pathways underlying CC-related muscle wasting aiming to provide clues for the definition of CC-specific biomarkers and for the development of drugs that prevent and/or counteract muscle impairment, which will certainly impact the management of cardiovascular disorders.