Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Biogenesis, Function, and Application in Cancer Immunotherapy.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are nanoscale, lipid bilayer-enclosed vesicles secreted by plant cells. They are widely distributed across plant tissues, including fruits, roots, stems, and leaves, and are particularly abundant in edible and medicinal plant species. This review presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in PDEV research, focusing on their biogenesis, isolation strategies, physicochemical characterization, and cross-kingdom regulatory mechanisms. We highlight the multifaceted roles of PDEVs in anti-tumor immunity, including tumor cell suppression, immune stimulation, drug delivery, and gut-microbiota-mediated immunomodulation. Despite their therapeutic potential, challenges remain in standardization and pharmacokinetic profiling. Emerging engineering strategies offer promising solutions to improve targeting and therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, PDEVs provide a unique platform for mechanistic exploration of traditional Chinese medicine. By integrating current knowledge and future perspectives, this review aims to advance the translational application of PDEVs in cancer immunotherapy and dietary intervention.