Progress, Challenges, and Standardization Pathways in the Isolation and Purification Techniques of Plant-Derived Vesicles.

Plant-Derived Vesicles (PDVs) are natural bioactive nanostructures and potential carriers that hold significant promise for applications in biotherapy and drug delivery. However, their isolation and purification technologies face numerous challenges, including the physical barriers posed by plant cell walls and interference from secondary metabolites. This makes it difficult for existing technologies to achieve both scalable production and high purity. This review evaluates mainstream isolation methods based on six dimensions: operational difficulty, cost, throughput, purity, yield, and impact on vesicle integrity. It also proposes a plant organ-based isolation strategy. Furthermore, this review explores standardized characterisation and quality control strategies for plant exosomes, aiming to provide a standardized and operational technical framework for research in this field. Future research will require standardized production, robust quality control frameworks, and clear elucidation of the action mechanism to promote the clinical application of PDVs.