Learning Protein-Protein Binding Free Energies from Interface Graphs and Physicochemical Descriptors.

Predicting protein-protein binding free energy (ΔG) from structure remains a central challenge in computational biophysics. Here, we present GULP (Graph-based Unified Learning for Protein binding), a graph neural network (GNN) that jointly learns from a residue-level graph representation of the binding interface and global physicochemical descriptors. We systematically investigate how training data distribution affects model performance by comparing a full training set with a balanced subset enriched for extreme-affinity complexes. GULP is computationally efficient and provides interpretable insights into residue-level and physicochemical contributions to binding. On external validation, GULP achieves a mean absolute error (MAE) of 2.31 kcal/mol and shows moderate agreement with experimental ΔG values (Pearson r = 0.54, Spearman ρ = 0.58).