Recent advances in spore-killing technologies: A comprehensive review on killing effect, mechanism and application in food matrices.

Bacterial spores are among the most resilient microbial contaminants in food processing. While thermal treatment remains the primary method for spore inactivation, its detrimental impact on food quality cannot be overlooked. In response to increasing consumer demands for superior nutrition and sensory attributes, non-thermal technologies have emerged as effective alternatives for spore control. This review comprehensively evaluates the efficacy of various advanced technologies in spore inactivation, emphasizing recent progress in understanding their mechanisms and practical applications across specific food matrices. Additionally, the challenges and current research limitations associated with non-thermal spore inactivation are critically examined. The paper also discusses emerging trends and proposes future research directions, aiming to serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industry stakeholders involved in the development of spore control strategies.