Technological and socioeconomic characteristics of smallholder dairy farms in Indigenous Pastos communities of Colombia.

Indigenous dairy farming systems in Latin America represent an important but understudied sector where traditional agricultural practices intersect with modern technology adoption. This study examined technological adoption patterns and socioeconomic characteristics of smallholder dairy farms in indigenous Pastos communities of Cumbal, Nariño, Colombia. Data was collected from 542 dairy farms across three communities (Cumbal, Panan, and Chiles) using structured questionnaires. Multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed two distinct groups: Technology-intensive adopters (68.8%) and Technology-traditional adopters (31.2%). The first group showed significantly higher rates of cooperative membership (88.2% vs. 40.2%, p < 0.001), training participation (82% vs. 43.2%, p < 0.001), and implementation of practices such as the use of protein, energy, and mineral supplements (98.4% vs. 81.7%, p < 0.01), pasture fertilization (89.3% vs. 66.9%, p < 0.01), and artificial insemination (76.7% vs. 40.8%, p < 0.001). Geographic location significantly influenced adoption patterns (p < 0.001), with farms closer to urban centers showing higher technology adoption rates. Technology-intensive adopters operated significantly larger farms (3.36 vs. 2.8 hectares on average, p < 0.01) compared to Technology-traditional adopters and achieved significantly higher milk production (7.94 vs. 7.25 L per cow per day, p < 0.01) and derived greater income from dairy activities (p < 0.001). The findings suggest the need for differentiated support programs that consider both spatial and cultural dimensions when promoting dairy sector development in indigenous territories. Future research should focus on cost-benefit analyses of adopted technologies, cultural factors influencing adoption decisions, and environmental impacts of dairy intensification in ecologically sensitive indigenous territories.