High-frequency oscillations and sleep spindles in epilepsy: from mechanisms to modeling.

High-frequency oscillations (HFOs) and sleep spindles are key neural rhythms in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep with significance for information processing and epilepsy research. This review summarizes the neurophysiological basis of HFOs and spindles, with emphasis on cross-frequency coupling and its pathological alterations in epilepsy. Cross-frequency coupling reflects spatiotemporal coordination within thalamocortical-hippocampal networks and may serve as an electrophysiological marker for distinguishing physiological from pathological activity and localizing epileptogenic zones. To bridge the gap between clinical observation and underlying mechanisms, we evaluate the potential of Neural Mass Models (NMMs) in elucidating the generation and abnormal coupling of these oscillations. Ultimately, the integration of multimodal electrophysiology and computational modeling offers a transformative pathway toward enhancing diagnostic precision and personalizing therapeutic interventions in epilepsy.