GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
Introduction
Metastatic spine cancer (MSC), a common complication of advanced malignancies [ 1 – 3 ], often causes significant morbidity characterized by intractable pain, neurological deficits, and mechanical instability [ 4 – 6 ]. Effective treatment requires a multimodal approach, taking into account factors such as life-expectancy, performance status, response to systemic therapy, and operation tolerability [ 7 – 10 ]. Advances in diagnostic tools and oncological treatments have significantly improved survival rates for patients with metastatic disease, impacting MSC management [ 11 – 13 ]. As patients live longer, treatment decisions become increasingly complex, requiring careful planning to prevent functional decline that could severely impact the remaining quality of life [ 14 , 15 ].
While radiation therapy has long been a cornerstone of treatment for MSC, the emergence of advanced modalities such as stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) has reshaped therapeutic strategies by improving tumor control and reducing toxicity [ 6 , 16 , 17 ]. Nevertheless, spine surgeons continue to play a vital role. Surgery offers immediate mechanical stability, pain relief, and neural decompression, which radiation alone may not achieve in certain cases [ 1 , 18 ]. Furthermore, advancements in radiation therapy have evolved the concept of surgical treatment for MSC. Before the introduction of SBRT, extensive tumor debulking and anterior column support were often necessary to reduce the risk of local failure. Modern surgical strategies focus on creating a safe margin between neural structures and the tumor, facilitating effective postoperative radiation therapy while ensuring mechanical stability [ 19 – 21 ]. This conceptual shift has resulted in decreased surgical morbidity and postoperative complications [ 21 ]. Furthermore, the introduction of minimally invasive techniques, navigation-aided surgery, and early recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols has enabled faster recovery and greater safety [ 9 , 13 , 22 , 23 ].
Given the dynamic landscape of MSC and the evolving roles within multidisciplinary teams, spine surgery retains its paramount importance in treatment. This review highlights recent developments in radiation therapy, surgical techniques, and systemic considerations for MSC treatment in the context of rapidly evolving radiation therapy.
Evolution and Pitfalls of Radiation Therapy
Stereotactic body radiation therapy
Before the advent of SBRT, conventional external beam radiation therapy (EBRT) was considered a standard of care for MSC when surgical management was not initially indicated [ 24 ]. Although EBRT achieves high response rates for pain control (60%–80%), its efficacy is limited, with complete response rates of 0%–20% and partial response rates of approximately 60% [ 17 ]. Furthermore, approximately 20% of patients treated with low-dose EBRT require reirradiation due to pain progression within months of the first treatment course [ 17 ].
SBRT is increasingly becoming the standard treatment for spinal metastases, supported by recent trials demonstrating its superiority over EBRT [ 17 ]. The primary advantage of SBRT lies in its ability to deliver precise treatment with very high doses per fraction [ 25 ]. By accurately targeting the area of interest, SRBT enables dose-escalation while sparing surrounding organs at risk [ 25 ].
A retrospective analysis of data from the randomized Canadian Cancer Trials Group Symptom Control 24 phase 2/3 trial demonstrated improved local control rates with SBRT compared to conventional EBRT [ 24 ]. The local failure rate was significantly lower with SBRT than EBRT at both 6 months (2.8% vs. 11.2%, p <0.001) and 12 months (6.1% vs. 28.4%, p <0.001) [ 24 ]. Chang et al. [ 26 ] reported a 1-year tumor progression-free incidence of 84%, defining progression-free as no magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-documented tumor progression. Similarly, Amdur et al. [ 27 ] reported a high local control rate of 95% at 11 months post-SBRT, with local control defined as no evidence of tumor progression on MRI at the treated site. Although SBRT yields excellent local control rates overall, variations exist based on the radiosensitivity of the tumor histotype [ 28 ]. Bernard et al. [ 28 ] found that while overall local control rates were high (82.6% at 1 year and 75.8% at 2 years), radioresistant tumors like non-small cell lung cancer or colorectal cancer had significantly higher failure rates (30.4% vs. 8.0% at 1 year, p =0.008) and poorer overall survival compared to radiosensitive tumors.
In addition to better local control rates, SBRT also offers better pain control compared to EBRT. Sahgal et al. [ 29 ] found that at 3-month post-treatment, 35% of SBRT patients experienced complete pain resolution versus 14% of EBRT patients ( p =0.002). In a randomized phase 2 trial by Sprave et al. [ 30 ], SBRT led to faster pain reduction within 3 months ( p =0.01) and significantly lower pain scores at 6 months post-treatment compared to EBRT ( p =0.002).
SBRT has also shown efficacy in reducing epidural cord compression. Lee et al. [ 31 ] used SBRT to treat 33 patients with severe epidural compression, achieving a significant epidural tumor response in 74% of patients. Ryu et al. [ 32 ] demonstrated neurological functional recovery after SBRT in patients with metastatic epidural spinal cord compression (MESCC).
Recent studies have shown that SBRT is an effective retreatment option after failed initial radiation therapy [ 17 ]. The 1-year local control rate of SBRT after EBRT failure ranges from 66% to 90% [ 33 ]. Additionally, reirradiation with SBRT after initial SBRT achieved a local control rate of 81% [ 34 ]. Pain improvement was reported in 65%–81% of patients undergoing reirradiation with SBRT [ 35 , 36 ]. Finally, a systematic review reported a 12% risk of vertebral compression fracture (VCF) and a 1.2% risk of radiation myelopathy after reirradiation with SBRT [ 17 ]. Given its clinical efficacy and low risk of severe complications after retreatment with SBRT, the International Stereotactic Radiosurgery Society practice guideline recommends administering SBRT following EBRT or SBRT alone following multidisciplinary assessment [ 17 ]. The guideline also recommends consulting a spine surgeon before SBRT for patients with clinical features consistent with MESCC, mechanical instability, or baseline VCF [ 17 ].
Limitations of SBRT
The spinal cord is the most critical organ at risk during radiation therapy for MSC. Exceeding the dose tolerance can lead to radiation myelopathy, a rare but catastrophic complication of spine SBRT [ 37 ]. The reported risk of radiation myelopathy is approximately 0.4% for initial SBRT and 1.2% for reirradiation SBRT [ 17 , 38 ]. Conventional ERBT dosing (45–50 Gy in 1.8–2 Gy fractions) carries a very low risk of radiation myelopathy (0.03%–0.2%) [ 39 ]. However, these spinal cord dose constraints may not directly apply to SBRT due to differences in fractionation and dose distributions [ 37 ]. Sahgal et al. [ 29 ] recommended limiting the thecal sac maximum dosage to 12.4 Gy in one fraction, 17 Gy in two fractions, or 20.3 Gy in three fractions to keep the risk of radiation myelopathy below 5%. Notably, the majority of radiation myelopathy cases reported to date have occurred with single-fraction SBRT, suggesting that fractionation may be an important consideration to mitigate the risk [ 37 ].
While radiation myelopathy is the most feared complication of SBRT, VCFs at the treated level or adjacent levels are the most common complications [ 40 ]. Mantel et al. [ 41 ] reported a 34.4% incidence of VCFs post-SBRT, though only 5% were symptomatic, defined as an increase of >2 points on the visual analog scale for pain. Risk factors for post-SBRT VCFs include osteolytic metastases, extent of osteolysis, and preexisting VCFs [ 41 ]. Furthermore, the rate of compression fractures following SBRT is reportedly higher than that with other types of radiation therapy, reaching up to 30%. However, fewer than 5% of these cases require intervention or surgical stabilization [ 41 ].
Surgical Treatment
Shifting landscape of surgical treatment
The early surgical approach for MSC involved laminectomy alone, without instrumentation, leaving anterior or lateral lesions unaddressed [ 42 ]. However, the surgical outcomes were poor, with only 30% of patients experiencing symptom improvement. Complications, including instability, deformity, postoperative pain, and neurological decline, were also common [ 42 ].
Unsatisfactory results and frequent complications from laminectomy shifted treatment preference toward EBRT [ 43 , 44 ]. Although EBRT reduced treatment-related morbidity compared to laminectomy, clinical outcomes remained poor, characterized by low local control rates and frequent clinical decline [ 43 , 44 ].
A 2005 landmark study by Patchell et al. [ 45 ] compared EBRT alone to surgery, including decompression, tumor debulking, and instrumentation. The surgery group had a higher rate of patients able to walk (84%) compared to the EBRT-only group (57%) [ 45 ]. This data shifted the paradigm back toward surgical interventions, leading to more aggressive intralesional gross total resections and even en bloc tumor resections via anterior cavitary approaches [ 45 – 47 ]. However, these procedures were associated with a high morbidity [ 47 , 48 ]. Furthermore, due to low local control rates with EBRT, this procedure led to a high local recurrence rate with poor long-term outcomes [ 46 ].
Separation surgery
The introduction of SBRT, which enables the delivery of high ablative doses of radiation to MSC, has significantly altered the concept of managing MSC [ 7 , 49 , 50 ]. Due to high local control rates, even for radioresistant tumors, many patients with MSC were initially treated with SBRT instead of surgery [ 1 , 4 , 51 ]. Studies have shown that ambulatory patients and those without neurological deficits benefit more from SBRT than surgery due to low treatment-related morbidity and similar local control rates [ 51 ]. For patients with low-grade MESCC (Bilsky grade 0 or 1), SBRT can be used as a definitive therapy instead of an additional surgery [ 1 , 21 , 40 ]. However, surgical treatment still plays a critical role for patients with high-grade MESCC (Bilsky grade 2 or 3) ( Table 1 ) [ 21 , 52 , 53 ]. Radiation therapy needs time for the tumor to regress, which may not provide prompt spinal cord decompression. In contrast, surgical treatment enables direct decompression of neural elements, preventing deterioration of neurological function [ 51 ].
Nevertheless, SBRT helped change the surgical strategy even when initial surgical intervention is indicated [ 6 , 54 ]. The goals of surgery shifted from aggressive surgical resections to creating a safe space between the metastatic tumor and adjacent neural structures [ 20 , 21 ]. Separation surgery refers to a posterior decompressive procedure that restores the cerebrospinal fluid space around the spinal cord by resecting epidural tumor tissue without attempting gross total tumor removal [ 21 , 55 , 56 ]. The goal is to create a safe margin between the tumor and the thecal sac, enabling the delivery of high-dose SBRT with reduced risk of radiation-induced myelopathy [ 21 ]. Surgery is followed by high-dose SBRT to provide further tumor regression and local control [ 2 , 9 ]. While separation surgery may increase the efficacy of radiation therapy by allowing treatment with higher dosage without increased risk of complications, current literature does not support that separation surgery affects the radiosensitivity of MSC [ 54 , 57 ].
Surgical procedures for separation surgery include (1) instrumentation of levels above and below the level that needs separation surgery to address iatrogenic instability; (2) decompression of thecal sac by removing the lamina; (3) removal of facet joints and pedicles of levels that need tumor resection to enable safe access to ventral epidural space and vertebral body; and (4) resection of tumor tissues located lateral and anterior to dura to achieve separation of thecal sac from MSC lesions [ 55 ]. Separation surgery typically involves a single posterior approach, eliminating the need for additional transcavitary procedures [ 18 ]. Furthermore, it has a minimal risk of bleeding-related complications since aggressive anterior debulking is not performed with separation surgery [ 6 ]. When paired with postoperative SBRT, separation surgery achieves a reported 1-year local control rate of 84% [ 56 , 58 ]. Significant improvements in local control were seen when patients with high-grade preoperative epidural disease were surgically downgraded to Bilsky grade 0–1 [ 7 , 59 ]. Amelink et al. [ 6 ] demonstrated the safety and efficacy of separation surgery by directly comparing it to the corpectomy group. The study found that separation surgery resulted in lower blood loss and shorter operating times compared to corpectomy combined with anterior reconstruction. Local control, survival, and reoperation rates were similar between the two groups [ 6 ].
Optimizing patient selection
Optimizing surgical indications is crucial for patients with MSC who are prone to complications. Patients presenting with neurological compromise and severe mechanical pain that prevents mobilization are considered candidates for surgery at initial presentation ( Fig. 1 ) [ 2 ]. However, for ambulatory patients without neurologic deficits, radiation therapy is often chosen as the initial therapy, given the morbidity associated with surgery [ 4 ]. A systematic review found no additional benefit in ambulatory status or local control rates with surgery for patients who remain ambulatory despite MESCC [ 4 ]. Although SBRT offers high local control rates, there remains a risk of clinical deterioration due to disease progression [ 60 ].
Radiosensitivity is a critical factor in clinical decision-making [ 19 , 28 , 60 ]. Radiosensitive tumors, such as hematologic malignancies (multiple myeloma, lymphoma), prostate cancer, and breast cancer, often respond well to SBRT alone, even in cases of moderate to high-grade epidural compression [ 28 ]. In contrast, radioresistant tumors, such as renal cell carcinoma, colorectal cancer, and non-small cell lung cancer, exhibit significantly lower local control rates with SBRT alone [ 28 , 60 ]. Bernard et al. [ 28 ] found that the 1-year local failure rate after SBRT was significantly higher in patients with radioresistant histologies (30.4%) compared to radiosensitive ones (8.0%) ( p =0.008). For radioresistant tumors, adding surgical decompression via separation surgery may allow for higher radiation doses with reduced toxicity risk, potentially improving local control, even in previously irradiated or refractory tumors [ 57 , 59 ]. Additionally, certain tumor types, such as renal cell carcinoma, are often hypervascular and prone to hemorrhage, complicating radiation planning and favoring pre-radiation surgical intervention [ 61 – 63 ]. Moreover, the extent of epidural spinal cord compression and neurological deficit is closely linked to tumor biology [ 19 , 60 ]. In particular, neurologic deficits caused by high-grade compression in the context of a radioresistant tumor often require prompt surgical intervention to prevent irreversible functional decline [ 21 , 59 , 64 ]. Therefore, the tumor histology should be considered alongside mechanical instability, neurologic status, and prior treatments when deciding between surgery and radiation therapy alone [ 60 , 65 , 66 ].
Decision-making frameworks like neurologic, oncologic, mechanical, systemic and LMNOP (location, mechanical, neurologic, oncologic, response to previous treatment) can guide clinical decisions [ 64 , 65 , 67 ]. Mechanical instability, considered a relative indication for surgery, can be objectively assessed using the Spine Instability Neoplastic Score (SINS) system ( Table 2 , Fig. 2 ) [ 68 , 69 ]. While high-grade MESCC (Bilsky grades 2 and 3) carries a high risk of neurologic compromise, further investigation is required to determine whether prognosis differs between grades 2 and 3 [ 52 ]. Furthermore, although the introduction of SBRT has reduced the importance of histology and radiosensitivity of primary tumor in MSC treatment, radiosensitivity remains a consideration for surgical decisions [ 19 ]. Highly radiosensitive tumors, such as hematologic malignancies, may still benefit from radiation despite initial high-grade cord compression [ 19 ]. Di Perna et al. [ 54 ] proposed a novel neurology-stability-epidural compression assessment (NSE) scoring system to address the need for surgical treatment. The system considers neurologic status (score 0–5), performance status, stability as assessed by SINS (score 0–5), and epidural compression assessed by Bilsky grade (score 0–3) [ 54 ]. Surgery is recommended for patients with an NSE score exceeding 5 ( Fig. 3 ) [ 54 ]. The study suggests that the NSE system can reliably predict the need for surgery and identify patients who would benefit most from surgical treatment [ 54 ]. Given that the factors included in the NSE system are critical for assessing the need for initial surgical treatment, its adoption in clinical practice appears both practical and reasonable ( Table 3 ) [ 70 ].
Enhancing safety of separation surgery
Separation surgery reduces the risk of bleeding-related complications by avoiding aggressive tumor debulking, but hypervascular tumors still pose a risk [ 66 ]. Preoperative embolization can effectively decrease intraoperative bleeding during separation surgery [ 61 , 66 ]. The use of preoperative embolization for MSC is increasingly being adopted, especially among patients with renal cancer [ 62 ]. Additionally, preoperative intravenous tranexamic acid has been shown to reduce intraoperative bleeding [ 5 ], but its potential to increase thromboembolic risk is a concern, especially in high-risk MSC patients [ 5 ]. However, Pennington et al. [ 5 ] found that limiting tranexamic acid dose to <20 mg/kg does not increase the risk of thromboembolism. Zhang et al. [ 63 ] developed a predictive model for postoperative thromboembolism in patients with MSC, which can help identify patients suitable for tranexamic acid use. Cell-saver salvaged blood can reduce transfusion requirements during MSC surgery [ 71 ]. Although concerns about reinfusing malignant cells exist, recent literature suggests that salvaged blood transfusion does not increase the risk of clinically detectable metastasis [ 71 ]. Evidence supports the clinical safety of salvaged blood in oncologic surgeries, with post-filtration samples showing only fragmented cytoplasmic debris [ 71 ]. However, potential complications of intraoperative cell-saver, such as electrolyte disturbances, air or fluid embolism, and dilutional coagulopathy, which can lead to multiorgan failure, should be carefully considered [ 71 ].
Minimally invasive separation surgery is gaining popularity due to its similar clinical efficacy and lower complication rates compared to open surgery [ 8 , 23 ]. This approach involves inserting pedicle screws through small incisions [ 9 , 72 ], and achieving decompression or separation via a small midline posterior incision or tubular retractor system [ 9 , 72 ]. Benefits include reduced wound complications, blood loss, length of hospital stay, and transfusion rates [ 23 ]. Echt et al. [ 8 ] suggested that faster wound healing with this approach can help shorten the interval between surgery and SBRT. However, limitations of the minimally invasive approach include potential incomplete thecal sac decompression due to limited visibility and its unsuitability for long-level surgeries [ 8 ].
Stereotactic navigation is increasingly used in minimally invasive separation surgery, providing valuable intraoperative guidance [ 9 ]. It enhances anatomical understanding through limited incisions and exposure, minimizes radiation exposure [ 2 , 9 , 20 , 73 ], and allows verification of complete ventral decompression via intraoperative CT scanning [ 9 , 74 ]. Navigation also enables accurate placement of instruments [ 12 ]. While pedicle screw insertion is generally straightforward for experienced surgeons, anatomical distortions caused by osteolysis and compression fractures may complicate spinal instrumentation [ 9 ].
Instrumentation failure can occur after separation surgery due to poor bone quality caused by tumor-related osteolysis and osteoporosis [ 75 , 76 ]. Fenestrated screws with poly-methylmethacrylate cement augmentation improve fixation in poor quality bone by allowing cement to interdigitate with the screw and vertebral body, enhancing pullout strength and reinforcing vertebral body architecture [ 21 , 75 , 76 ]. Newman et al. [ 75 ] reported low failure rates for cement-augmented constructs: 2.8% for long-segment fixations and 2.2% for short-segment fixations.
Wound complications are a common postoperative issue in MSC surgeries, with varying incidence rates [ 2 , 4 , 77 ]. Perioperative radiation therapy is a risk factor for wound complications, but the optimal interval between radiation therapy and surgery is debated [ 55 ]. However, a 2–3 week interval between surgery and postoperative radiation is generally recommended [ 78 ]. Minimally invasive surgery has been shown to reduce the risk of wound complications compared to open surgery [ 75 ]. Poor nutritional status, diabetes mellitus, smoking, adjuvant radiation therapy/chemotherapy are known risk factors for surgical site infection [ 79 ]. Given the significantly higher rate of surgical site infection in patients undergoing MSC surgery, compared to other spine surgeries, identifying and managing modifiable factors preoperatively is crucial to reduce the risks [ 79 ]. Combined treatment with plastic surgery can reduce the risk of wound complications. Franck et al. [ 80 ] reported that routine use of local muscle flap closure significantly decreased the wound complication rate after MSC surgery. Hersh et al. [ 81 ] also found that the use of local paraspinous advancement flap after spine surgery for MSC significantly decreased wound complications.
Improving the efficacy of separation surgery
While separation surgery followed by postoperative SBRT is effective for MSC, not all patients undergo these procedures routinely [ 16 , 82 ]. Real-world studies show that only 21%–48% of patients receive postoperative radiation therapy [ 16 , 60 , 83 ]. Delayed radiation therapy increases the risk of local progression and decreased overall survival [ 84 ]. Achieving timely postoperative radiation therapy can be challenging due to patients’ poor general health status [ 20 ]. Despite SBRT’s superior local control, radiation oncologists often opt for EBRT due to challenges with SBRT [ 16 ], including the complexity of radiation planning due to spine instrumentation, increased risk of radiation myelopathy from preoperative radiation [ 25 ], and verifying adequate tumor-thecal sac separation [ 16 ]. Postoperative MRI and intraoperative sonography can help assess the quality of separation, but further verification may be required [ 16 ]. Close communication between the surgeon and radiation oncologist, starting preoperatively, is crucial to optimize postoperative radiation therapy and modality [ 60 ].
ERAS protocol for patients with MSC can lead to improved short-term patient recovery [ 22 , 85 – 87 ]. ERAS programs involve an evidence-based multidisciplinary approach to improve perioperative outcomes [ 86 ]. Given the frailty and comorbidities common in MSC patients, ERAS protocols would be particularly beneficial in facilitating postoperative recovery and optimizing outcomes [ 86 ]. A study by Chakravarthy et al. [ 22 ] found that implementing an ERAS protocol resulted in decreased intraoperative bleeding, less perioperative opioid use, earlier ambulation, shorter urinary catheter use, and shorter hospital stays. Their ERAS protocol included multimodal preemptive pain medication, intraoperative liposomal bupivacaine injection, goal-directed fluid therapy, early initiation of diet, and early ambulation [ 22 ].
Comparative efficacy of radiation therapy alone versus surgery combined with radiation
While SBRT has revolutionized local control of MSC, growing evidence shows its efficacy varies significantly with tumor histology, degree of cord compression, and neurologic symptoms. In particular, SBRT achieves excellent local control in patients with low-grade epidural spinal cord compression (Bilsky grade 0–1) and radiosensitive tumors, potentially serving as a standalone treatment [ 88 ]. However, for patients with radioresistant histologies or high-grade compression (Bilsky grade 2–3), combining surgery with SBRT yields superior outcomes [ 88 ].
Chang et al. [ 35 ] reported that SBRT alone achieved a 1-year tumor control rate of 84% in a cohort with varied tumor types, primarily effective in patients with preserved neurological function and minimal epidural involvement. In contrast, Bernard et al. [ 28 ] found that SBRT’s efficacy is significantly reduced in radioresistant tumors such as renal cell carcinoma and colorectal cancer, with 1-year failure rates of 30.4% compared to 8.0% in radiosensitive tumors ( p =0.008). These findings underscore the need for careful histologic stratification when selecting SBRT monotherapy.
For patients with high-grade MESCC, separation surgery followed by SBRT provides effective local control and neurologic preservation. Laufer et al. [ 56 ] reported 1-year local control rates of approximately 84% with separation surgery combined with high-dose SBRT, even in patients with prior radiation or radioresistant disease. Alghamdi et al. [ 59 ] found that surgically downgrading Bilsky grade 2 or 3 compression to grade 0 or 1 before SBRT significantly improved local control and reduced retreatment rates.
The landmark trial by Patchell et al. [ 45 ] randomized MESCC patients with neurologic deficits to radiation therapy alone or surgery followed by radiation. Surgical patients showed better ambulation preservation (84% vs. 57%), delayed loss of walking ability, and improved functional outcomes [ 45 ]. Despite preceding the SBRT era, the study highlighted the importance of mechanical decompression in symptomatic patients [ 45 ].
A consolidated comparison of outcomes by treatment modality is summarized in Table 4 . Collectively, these data suggest that SBRT alone may be sufficient for select patients with radiosensitive tumors and minimal compression. However, surgery combined with SBRT should be considered in patients with radioresistant tumors, significant neurologic deficits, or high-grade cord compression.
Systemic Considerations
Early detection of MSC due to advances in imaging modalities and first-line cancer therapies has improved survival and quality of life for cancer patients [ 89 ]. The development of targeted therapies and novel treatment protocols relies on identifying novel mutations and understanding cancer biology, driving personalized treatment approaches [ 89 ]. Examples include non-small cell lung cancer with ALK rearrangements, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2/Neu alterations in breast cancer, and BRAF V600E mutations in melanoma patients [ 89 ]. Improved systemic therapies have enhanced prognosis, expanding surgical indications for MSC [ 70 ]. The conventional criterion for surgical candidacy has been an expected postoperative survival of >3 months. However, recent studies suggest that even patients surviving <3 months postoperatively experience clinically meaningful improvements in the quality of life [ 90 ]. After adjusting for baseline functional status, 6-week postoperative outcomes were similar regardless of survival beyond 3 months [ 90 ]. Traditional scoring systems like the Tokuhashi and Tomita systems have limited predictive accuracy, prompting the development of newer systems, such as the New England Spinal Metastasis Score (NESMS) and Skeletal Oncology Research Group ( Table 5 ) [ 91 – 94 ]. External validation studies suggest that these newer scoring systems better predict patient survival [ 92 – 94 ]. The NESMS shows a significant correlation between lower scores and poorer 1-year survival rates, with scores of 3, 2, 1, and 0 corresponding to death rates of 44.8%, 69.6%, 88.3%, and 89.5%, respectively [ 91 ].
Systemic chemotherapy can impair bone marrow function, performance status, and wound healing, complicating postoperative recovery [ 89 ]. Alkylating agents impair wound healing by inhibiting fibroblast proliferation, neovascularization, and connective tissue proliferation for up to 14 days [ 95 , 96 ]. While immunotherapy likely causes many toxicities that elevate surgical risk, most immunotherapy agents do not affect wound healing [ 97 ]. However, new antiangiogenic (anti-vascular endothelial growth factor) therapies do impair wound healing, and discontinuation should be considered [ 98 ]. Monoclonal antibodies have half-lives of days to weeks and should be discontinued earlier, whereas the small-molecule oral inhibitors can be continued until 1–2 days before surgery [ 98 ].
Future perspectives
The future of spine surgery for MSC is poised for significant innovation and multidisciplinary integration [ 11 , 12 ]. With precision medicine advancing rapidly, the role of spine surgeons is expected to expand beyond mechanical stabilization and neural decompression. Emerging innovations in surgery for MSC include the integration of machine learning (ML) and augmented reality (AR) applications [ 11 – 13 ].
ML in healthcare supports physicians by developing prediction models, identifying trends, and reducing workload [ 11 ]. In spine oncology, ML is being explored for extracting imaging data for diagnosis and predicting survival based on individual characteristics [ 99 ]. Studies have shown that ML models can predict postoperative mortality rates [ 11 , 100 ] and identify prognostic factors such as age, frailty, muscle radiodensity, primary tumor type, and Frankel grade [ 100 ]. Predictive models have also been proposed to assess the risk of pathologic compression fractures and postoperative clinical outcomes [ 101 ]. Additionally, models can automatically identify metastatic disease from spine imaging [ 102 , 103 ].
AR can enhance procedural accuracy when combined with navigation systems [ 12 , 13 ]. Studies have shown that AR-based navigation can improve pedicle screw placement accuracy compared to free hand technique [ 12 , 13 ]. AR navigation system provides real-time imaging of planned insertion paths, instrument tracking, and an overlay of three-dimensional bony anatomy and surface topography [ 12 , 13 ]. Although limited studies exist on MSC operations, AR’s potential benefits in the distorted and complex anatomy often encountered in these patients suggest it could significantly enhance surgical precision and safety. Future studies are warranted to clarify the effectiveness and safety of AR in the management of MSC.
Conclusions
Spine surgery remains an indispensable component of MSC management, particularly for cases requiring immediate neural decompression and mechanical stabilization. As radiation therapies evolve, spine surgeons must adapt, emphasizing a balanced, patient-centered approach that leverages technological advancements and multidisciplinary care. By addressing both the oncological and mechanical aspects of the disease through comprehensive management strategies, the quality of life and survival of patients with MSC can be significantly enhanced ( Fig. 4 ).
Key Points
Stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) offers superior local control, especially for radioresistant tumors.
SBRT has led to a paradigm shift in spine surgery, with separation surgery providing a safety margin for SBRT and reducing morbidity compared to extensive cavitary resections.
Minimally invasive approach, enhanced recovery after surgery protocols, and strategies to reduce bleeding and wound complications can improve patient outcomes.
Decision-making frameworks and prognostic tools can guide individualized treatment plans for surgery or radiation.
Innovations including artificial intelligence and augmented reality aim to improve surgical outcomes.
Conflict of Interest
Jae Hwan Cho serves as deputy editor of the Asian Spine Journal , but has no role in the decision to publish this article. Sehan Park serves as an editorial board member of the Asian Spine Journal but has no role in the decision to publish this article. Except for that, no potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: SP, DHO, CJH, JHC. Project administration: JHC. Writing–original draft: SP. Writing–review and editing: JHC. Final approval of the manuscript: all authors
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