Insecticide resistance in mosquitoes: Current status, mechanism, monitoring and innovative strategies for sustainable vector control.

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Zika and yellow fever remain major public health challenges worldwide, causing millions of cases and thousands of deaths annually. Vector control has been the cornerstone of prevention strategies, with insecticides being the most commonly used intervention. However, the widespread and often indiscriminate use of insecticides has led to the emergence of insecticide resistance in the mosquito population, thereby threatening the sustainability of existing control measures. This review presents the current status of insecticide resistance, its underlying mechanisms, and global trends in resistance. The alternative vector control strategies, such as genetic modification, Wolbachia-based methods, botanical insecticides and nanotechnology-driven control measures, are also highlighted. It also explores the significance of insecticide resistance monitoring, integrated resistance management strategies and the need for new compounds with a distinct mode of action to ensure the continued effectiveness of vector control.