Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment and human tissue: A critical review of distribution, exposure pathways, and health risks.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent a substantial group comprising over 14,000 synthetic chemicals that are widely utilized in industrial and consumer applications. These compounds pose significant environmental concerns owing to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and associated toxicity. Despite the extensive research conducted on PFAS, notable knowledge gaps persist regarding their global distribution, human exposure pathways, and comprehensive health effects, particularly concerning emerging PFAS alternatives. This review is structured according to environmental matrices (atmosphere, aquatic and terrestrial systems), exposure pathways (inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact), and adverse health outcomes. The findings indicate widespread contamination by PFAS across all environmental matrices, with particularly elevated concentrations detected near industrial sources. Adjacent surface water exhibits high PFAS contamination (ΣPFAS up to 765 μg/L), with a marked shift toward emerging compounds like perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), detected at concentrations as high as 9.08 μg/L. Consequently, elevated concentrations of these contaminants have also been found in human serum samples from populations nearby industrial areas, where perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) can reach up to 624.7 ng/mL. The health risks associated with PFAS exposure encompass endocrine disruption, immune system dysfunction, and toxicity affecting multiple organs. This review underscores the critical necessity for advanced technologies and health regulatory frameworks to mitigate the risks associated with PFAS, offering a comprehensive foundation for environmental safety and public health initiatives.