Adaptation and Validation of the 14-Item Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale Among Russian Orthodox Christian Women.

Religious and spiritual (R/S) struggles are associated with psychological distress across cultures, yet no validated Russian-language instrument exists to assess these experiences in Orthodox Christian populations. This study adapted and validated the Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale (RSS-14) for Russian Orthodox Christian women. Two samples of Russian Orthodox Christian women were recruited through Orthodox online platforms during Great Lent 2025: a cross-sectional sample (N = 593) and a longitudinal sample (N = 476) assessed over six weeks. Structural validity was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA); reliability via internal consistency and test-retest stability; measurement invariance across timepoints; and construct validity through correlations with religiosity, distress, and well-being measures. CFA supported a six-factor structure (Divine, Demonic, Interpersonal, Moral, Doubt, Ultimate Meaning) with acceptable-to-good fit. Internal consistency was adequate and test-retest reliability moderate. Metric and scalar invariance were supported. Convergent validity was demonstrated through correlations with negative religious coping, and criterion validity through associations with depression, anxiety, stress, and reduced well-being. The findings indicate that the RSS-14 provides a valid and reliable tool for assessing R/S struggles among Russian Orthodox Christian women, addressing a critical gap in Russian-language instrumentation for research, clinical, and pastoral applications.