Molecular understanding of plant pollination, fertilization, seed development and protoplast regeneration.

Sexual reproduction in plants is a tightly coordinated process that underpins biodiversity, drives speciation, and serves as a foundation for modern crop improvement. Here, we synthesize recent advances in elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing major reproductive events in flowering plants, including male and female gametogenesis, pollen-pistil communication, double fertilization, embryogenesis, and endosperm-mediated seed development. We also discuss the integration of asexual propagation through protoplast regeneration, highlighting its emerging importance in plant biotechnology. Together, these insights deepen our understanding of fundamental reproductive biology and open new opportunities for the rational design of hybrid breeding systems and stress-resilient crops, with broad implications for global food security under changing climatic conditions.