Dietary exposure and health risks associated with selected vegetables from Pothohar Region of Punjab, Pakistan.

Contamination of vegetables with heavy metals has emerged as a critical environmental and public health concern due to their potential for bioaccumulation and dietary exposure. This study aimed to assess the concentration of heavy metals, i.e., Cd, Cr, Ni, and Cu, in commonly consumed vegetables using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (FAAS) and evaluate associated health risks from the consumption of these vegetables. The nine selected vegetables were obtained from major wholesale markets in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, located in the Pothohar region of Pakistan, over 2 months (2025). Health risk assessment was conducted using Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), Hazard Index (HI), and Target Cancer Risk (TCR). The results showed that cadmium concentrations ranged from 0.103 mg/kg in Mentha spicata (Islamabad) to 2.28 mg/kg in Solanum tuberosum (Rawalpindi). Chromium levels varied from 0.09 mg/kg (Islamabad) to 7.52 mg/kg in Coriandrum sativum (Rawalpindi), while nickel concentrations ranged from 1.24 mg/kg in C. sativum (Islamabad) to 21.18 mg/kg in Momordica charantia (Rawalpindi). Copper concentrations ranged from 1.37 mg/kg in M. charantia (Rawalpindi) to 24.98 mg/kg in Solanum lycopersicum (Islamabad). Several vegetables exhibited metal concentrations exceeding permissible limits, particularly for Cd, Cr, and Ni. Health risk assessment indicated that although individual metal exposure through EDI remained within acceptable limits, cumulative risk indices (HI and TCR) suggested potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks, especially among children. These findings highlight the need for continuous monitoring of food quality, improved regulation of agricultural practices, and increased public awareness to minimize dietary exposure to toxic metals and ensure food safety.