Ethylene networking in fruit ripening: molecular mechanisms, hormone crosstalk, climate interactions, and postharvest management.

Ethylene functions as a central hormonal regulator controlling diverse metabolic and developmental changes throughout fruit maturation and storage. In this review, we provide an integrative examination of ethylene-dependent networks that coordinate ripening, addressing genetic control mechanisms, climate stress responses, and commercial handling practices. Our analysis focuses on the molecular mechanisms of ethylene production and the downstream signaling components that drive expression of genes necessary for ripening. We also examine how ethylene signaling interfaces with master transcriptional regulators and integrates with other phytohormones, such as abscisic acid, auxin, jasmonic acid, and brassinosteroids to fine-tune the ripening process. Moreover, we address the impact of climate change-related factors, such as heat stress, altered light regimes, elevated CO2 levels, and water scarcity, on ethylene-mediated ripening processes. Strategies for managing ethylene production during postharvest storage and transportation are also discussed. Finally, we propose future research directions to advance the broader understanding of ethylene-mediated regulation of fruit ripening. A deeper insight into ethylene function will support the development of innovative approaches to improve fruit quality, extend shelf life, and contribute to global food security and environmental sustainability.