Endophytic fungi as sustainable tools for Fusarium head blight control in cereals: mechanisms, applications and limitations.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) remains one of the most difficult cereal diseases to manage because disease severity and mycotoxin contamination are shaped by pathogen diversity, weather conditions, host susceptibility, crop residues, and the narrow timing window for fungicide application. Endophytic fungi have been proposed as complementary tools within integrated FHB management because they may suppress Fusarium spp. directly, reduce mycotoxin accumulation, compete for ecological niches, or prime host defence responses. This review evaluates the evidence supporting endophyte-mediated FHB control in cereals, distinguishing mechanisms demonstrated in cereal-Fusarium systems from those inferred from broader plant-endophyte studies. We compare application strategies including residue treatment, spike application, seed or rhizosphere inoculation, and postharvest approaches, with emphasis on their practical advantages, limitations, and current level of validation. Available studies indicate that selected fungal endophytes and endophyte-associated fungi can reduce FHB symptoms and, in some cases, deoxynivalenol accumulation under controlled or field-oriented conditions; however, field consistency, formulation, delivery, ecological safety, compatibility with existing management practices, and regulatory requirements remain major barriers to adoption. We conclude that endophytes are unlikely to replace fungicides or host resistance in the near term, but they represent promising components of integrated FHB management when supported by strain-specific evidence, quantitative disease and mycotoxin data, and multi-environment validation.