Rising Heat and Rising Harm: A Systematic Review of Heat and Gender-Based Violence.

Globally, rising temperatures and the frequency and severity of heatwaves are predicted to worsen over the coming years, yet the social impacts of this phenomenon remain under-researched. In particular, the relationship between extreme heat and gender-based violence (GBV) has received limited attention, despite growing concern that heat-related stress could exacerbate known drivers of violence. We conducted a systematic review following a PROSPERO-registered protocol (CRD42025645675). We searched academic and grey literature to identify the global quantitative evidence on the association between heat (measured as ambient temperature, heatwaves, or heat stress) and GBV (including intimate partner violence [IPV], non-partner sexual violence, and early marriage). Our search identified 23 reports describing 22 studies from both high- and low-income settings, including cross-sectional, ecological, time-series, and cohort designs. Of the 22 studies, 20 studies reported evidence of an association between higher temperatures and increased reporting of GBV. Notably, IPV and sexual violence were the most frequently reported outcomes. For early marriage specifically, two of three studies identified significant links between heat exposure and early marriage. Few studies disaggregated findings by age or gender, and none analysed outcomes for gender minorities or people with disabilities. The evidence suggests that heat may act as a trigger, stressor, or amplifier of violence, particularly in contexts of economic precarity, poor housing, or weakened health and protection systems. Yet, current climate and heat preparedness plans rarely account for GBV risks. There is an urgent need for longitudinal studies using interdisciplinary methods and expanding community-led research to centre lived experiences of populations at highest risk to better inform prevention and response strategies for GBV and to embed gender equality considerations into global heat action plans, social protection, and early warning systems.