Comparative Effects of Pacing Strategies on Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND

Pacing strategy is a key determinant of endurance performance, enabling athletes to regulate effort to optimise outcomes. While various pacing profiles (e.g. self-selected, fast-start, even, or slow) have been proposed, their comparative effects on performance remain unclear because of conflicting findings and methodological variability across studies.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to conduct a systematic review and network meta-analysis to compare the effects of different pacing strategies on endurance time-trial performance in healthy athletes.

METHODS

We included peer-reviewed experimental studies comparing at least one imposed pacing strategy (fast-start, even, slow) against a self-selected or alternative strategy, with performance assessed via time-trial tests based on distance. Studies involved endurance sports (e.g. cycling, running, swimming) encompassing middle- and long-duration events. Data from 24 studies (n = 302 participants; 765 observations) were analysed using a frequentist network meta-analytic framework under a random-effects model.

RESULTS

There were no differences in performance between self-selected and imposed pacing strategies across the network (standardised mean differences < 0.20, all p > 0.05). However, subgroup and meta-regression analyses revealed that the performance impact of slow-start strategies was modulated by factors such as duration of the initial start. Notably, prolonged slow starts were associated with impaired performance. No significant differences were observed in secondary outcomes (peak oxygen uptake, mean oxygen uptake, end-test lactate) across pacing strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

This review found no consistent performance advantage of any imposed pacing strategy over self-selected pacing. While average effects were comparable across strategies, the efficacy of slow-start pacing was particularly sensitive to contextual factors such as the length of the initial slow start. These findings underscore the value of self-pacing as a flexible and context-adaptive strategy, and highlight that pacing interventions must be aligned with individual, environmental, and task-specific demands to optimise endurance performance.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered in PROSPERO with ID CRD420251011233.