Frontiers in immunology · 2025
TGF-β-driven NK Cells plasticity in hepatocellular carcinoma.
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Reverberi Valentina, Montali Anna, Vecchi Andrea, Rossi Marzia, Pelagatti Alessio, Doselli Sara, Farina Benedetta, Olivani Andrea, Economopoulos Giorgio, Dalla Valle Raffaele, Laccabue Diletta, Ferraglia Francesca, Penna Amalia, Fisicaro Paola, Boni Carolina, Missale Gabriele
Аннотация
BACKGROUND: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, with limited curative options for advanced disease. Natural Killer (NK) cells are critical innate immune effectors, but their anti-tumor function is severely compromised by the immunosuppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), particularly through transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). This study investigates the pivotal role of TGF-β signaling in modulating NK cell phenotypes and functions within the HCC TIME.
METHODS: to comprehensively assess TGF-β pathway activation and its impact on NK cells, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and liver-infiltrating lymphocytes (LILs) were isolated from HCC patients undergoing curative resection. Phenotypic and functional analyses were performed, along with functional restoration experiments targeting TGF-β signaling.
RESULTS: Tumor-infiltrating NK cells (TINKs) exhibited significant activation of both canonical (SMAD-dependent) and non-canonical (TAK1/p38 MAPK) TGF-β signaling, with a predominance of the non-canonical pathway. This activation was associated with the emergence of an ILC1-like NK subset (CD103+/CD49a+), which was nearly absent in non-tumor liver tissue. These ILC1-like cells maintained strong cytokine production and expressed high levels of inhibitory receptors (PD-1, TIM-3, TIGIT), whereas conventional NK cells (cNKs; CD103-/CD49a-/CD9-) were functionally impaired. Notably, blocking TGF-β receptor binding and SMAD3 activation restored cNK functionality.
DISCUSSION: our findings suggest that while non-canonical TGF-β signaling drives phenotypic reprogramming and contributes to NK cell dysfunction, canonical SMAD-dependent signaling remains a key therapeutic target for functional restoration. These results highlight the dual role of TGF-β in immune modulation and suggest that targeted pathway inhibition could enhance innate anti-tumor responses, opening new avenues for combination therapies in HCC.
METHODS: to comprehensively assess TGF-β pathway activation and its impact on NK cells, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and liver-infiltrating lymphocytes (LILs) were isolated from HCC patients undergoing curative resection. Phenotypic and functional analyses were performed, along with functional restoration experiments targeting TGF-β signaling.
RESULTS: Tumor-infiltrating NK cells (TINKs) exhibited significant activation of both canonical (SMAD-dependent) and non-canonical (TAK1/p38 MAPK) TGF-β signaling, with a predominance of the non-canonical pathway. This activation was associated with the emergence of an ILC1-like NK subset (CD103+/CD49a+), which was nearly absent in non-tumor liver tissue. These ILC1-like cells maintained strong cytokine production and expressed high levels of inhibitory receptors (PD-1, TIM-3, TIGIT), whereas conventional NK cells (cNKs; CD103-/CD49a-/CD9-) were functionally impaired. Notably, blocking TGF-β receptor binding and SMAD3 activation restored cNK functionality.
DISCUSSION: our findings suggest that while non-canonical TGF-β signaling drives phenotypic reprogramming and contributes to NK cell dysfunction, canonical SMAD-dependent signaling remains a key therapeutic target for functional restoration. These results highlight the dual role of TGF-β in immune modulation and suggest that targeted pathway inhibition could enhance innate anti-tumor responses, opening new avenues for combination therapies in HCC.