Male rape--the silent victims.

This literature review examines the issue of male rape and the possible counselling strategies that may assist in recovery. There are several misconceptions surrounding male rape which can result in the under-reporting and secondary or sanctuary victimisation of the survivor. Men who have been raped may believe that it attacks the very essence of what it is to be masculine and male. Many may not seek help unless they perceive a need for immediate attention, such as physical trauma requiring medical assistance. The literature also reveals that when men do seek help they may be treated poorly. Secondary victimisation or sanctuary trauma results when there is a lack of empathy and understanding of the effect that rape can have on the survivor, such as rape-trauma syndrome. Training in this area is needed for the police, emergency department staff, nurses, general practitioners, and community health services. Management of survivors starts with examining our own beliefs about male rape. Many of the reported counselling strategies are based on therapists' observations, trauma theories, and research related to child abuse or sexual assault of females which may not be transferable to men who have been raped. Education and counselling of survivors' support networks must be considered as part of a holistic approach to management. Secondary prevention strategies aimed at the broader community are required to assist survivors to come forward without fear of further victimisation because of stereotyping.