Pulmonary arterial hypertension: insights from genetic studies.

Familial pulmonary arterial hypertension (FPAH) was described 60 years ago, but real progress in understanding its origins and pathogenesis is just beginning. Germline mutations in bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 (BMPR2) are responsible for the disease in most families, and also in many sporadic cases of idiopathic PAH. Heritable PAH refers to patients with a positive family history, or with a responsible genetic mutation, and is an autosomal dominant disease that affects females disproportionately, may occur at any age, and is characterized by reduced penetrance and variable expressivity. These characteristics suggest that other endogenous or exogenous factors modify its expression. Several different factors have recently been demonstrated to modify the clinical expression of BMPR2 mutation, including estrogen metabolites and functional polymorphisms in transforming growth factor-β1 and CYP1B1. Furthermore, a linkage study recently identified modifier loci for BMPR2 clinical expression, which suggests an oligogenic model. Clinical testing for BMPR2 mutations is available for families with heritable and idiopathic PAH, and is an evolving model of personalized medicine. Variable age of onset and decreased penetrance confound genetic counseling, because the majority of carriers of a BMPR2 mutation will never develop PAH, but often transmit the risk to their progeny.