Tuning the Properties of 3D-Printed Electrochemical Devices by Using Different Fused Deposition Modeling Printers and Setups.

Although fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing has emerged as an accessible and versatile approach for the fabrication of electrochemical sensors, the type of printer and manufacturing setup might affect the quality of the ultimate device. In this work, the electrochemical performance of conductive polylactic acid (PLA)-based printed sensors have been tuned by interrogating different cost classes and hardware configurations. Electrochemical behavior was investigated using cyclic voltammetry with both inner- and outer-sphere redox probes, namely potassium ferricyanide (III) and hexaammineruthenium (III) chloride, to evaluate surface accessibility and electron-transfer properties. Scanning electron microscopy and tensile tests were additionally performed to characterize electrode morphology and mechanical stability. Among the evaluated 3D printers, high-performance systems characterized by higher automation, improved motion control, and greater extrusion stability demonstrated satisfactory outcomes. In contrast, entry-level open-platform systems showed lower surface utilization and reduced electrochemical performance. The results demonstrate that all printing platforms were capable of producing sensors with electrochemical functionality, comparable mechanical properties, and well-defined architectures. However, despite negligible differences among PLA filaments, it is clear that printing time, automation, and hardware flexibility represent central factors in selecting the most suitable platform for next scaling of electrode manufacturing.