Advancing multi-analyte neurochemical detection with carbon-based electrodes: Challenges and future perspectives.

Real-time monitoring of neurotransmitters is essential for understanding dynamic neurochemical processes and advancing clinical diagnostics. Carbon-based electrochemical sensors, including glassy carbon, diamond-like carbon, boron-doped diamond, graphene, carbon nanotubes, screen-printed carbon electrodes, and carbon fiber microelectrodes, offer versatile platforms for simultaneous multi-analyte detection with high sensitivity and selectivity. Advances in nanostructuring, surface functionalization, and electropolymerization have enabled detection of dopamine, serotonin, ascorbic acid, and related biomolecules at nanomolar to picomolar levels in complex biological samples. Carbon fiber microelectrodes paired with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry provide exceptional spatiotemporal resolution, supporting real-time monitoring in neural tissues. However, many studies are conducted under non-physiological conditions or in vitro, limiting in vivo applicability. Key challenges include biofouling, signal overlap, sensor stability, and limited multiplexing in physiological environments. Addressing these limitations through continued innovation in surface engineering, nanomaterial integration, and sensor miniaturization is expected to enable high-precision, real-time neurotransmitter monitoring, ultimately enhancing our understanding of neural function and facilitating improved diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.