Lumpy skin disease threat in Europe: Current situation, transmission dynamics and future prospects.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), caused by Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV, genus Capripoxvirus), is an emerging transboundary disease of cattle and water buffalo. Although rarely fatal, it results in severe economic losses due to decreased productivity, hide damage, infertility, and trade limitations. This review summarizes the etiology, susceptible hosts, modes of transmission, and advances in control, vaccination, and treatment strategies, with a particular focus on Europe, where spread into previously unaffected areas has recently been reported. Since its first identification in Zambia in 1929, LSD remained endemic in Africa for six decades before spreading into the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. Major outbreaks have subsequently occurred in Türkiye, the Balkans, Russia, Asian territories, and, most recently, in Italy, France, and Spain in 2025. Transmission is primarily vector-borne through blood-feeding arthropods, while animal movements and inadequate farm-level biosecurity further exacerbate the spread. Control measures such as vaccination with homologous live-attenuated vaccines, quarantine, and movement restrictions have proven effective in limiting outbreaks. LSD poses a significant threat to livestock health and trade globally. Coordinated surveillance, improved biosecurity, and vaccination remain the cornerstones of control. Continued research into antiviral and alternative therapeutic strategies to complement existing prevention measures is warranted. Killed vaccines may currently help to protect animals in pre-epidemic areas and slow the rate of epidemics.