Advances and future perspectives of kidney organoid technology in renal disease research and clinical translation.

Kidney organoids, as three-dimensional in vitro models that recapitulate the structural and functional features of the human kidney, have made significant strides in recent years in elucidating the mechanisms of renal diseases, drug screening, and personalized therapeutic evaluation. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current technologies for kidney organoid generation, their applications in renal disease research and treatment, and the engineering and translational challenges that remain. Particular focus is placed on recent advances in vascularization strategies, integration with bioprinting and organ-on-chip platforms, simulation of the immune microenvironment, and long-term culture techniques. We further discuss key bottlenecks in clinical translation, such as large-scale production, data reproducibility, and ethical and regulatory considerations. Finally, we highlight emerging trends in the convergence of kidney organoids with precision medicine, microfluidic systems, and biosensing technologies. Kidney organoids are poised to drive innovation in biotechnology, regenerative medicine, and pharmaceutical development, providing a powerful platform for the precise diagnosis and treatment of renal diseases.