Gut microbiota's role in heart failure.

The pathogenesis of heart failure (HF) is complex, and from an immunological perspective, the "gut-heart axis" plays a pivotal role in its development. The composition of gut microbiota differs significantly between HF patients and healthy individuals, with variations observed across different nations, HF etiologies, and stages defined by the New York Heart Association (NYHA) classification. Moreover, gut-derived metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), bile acids, and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) influence HF progression through specific mechanisms and signaling pathways. Notably, medications recommended in cardiovascular diseases and advanced interventions applied in HF, such as heart transplantation requiring immunosuppressive therapy or the implantation of mechanical circulatory support devices, are associated with significant alterations in gut microbiota composition. However, these mechanisms are still not well-established. This review aims to summarize current data on the impact of the gut microbiome on HF progression and treatment, encompassing both standard medical treatment and advanced therapies of HF.