Mitochondrial transfer and transplantation in the immune cells: Mechanistic foundations, medical applications, and future prospects.

Mitochondria exhibit tissue-specific physiological functions and are central to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Emerging evidence indicates that intercellular mitochondrial transfer is regulated by multiple determinants and exerts a profound influence on the function of both innate and adaptive immune cells. The underlying mechanisms are highly heterogeneous, involving distinct cellular contexts, microenvironmental cues, and modes of intercellular communication. This review summarizes the major triggers and mechanistic pathways governing mitochondrial transfer in immune cells and immune-related diseases, and discusses the therapeutic potential of this process while highlighting key challenges that currently limit its clinical translation. By integrating recent mechanistic insights and translational perspectives, this review aims to provide a conceptual framework for the development of mitochondrial transfer-based strategies in the treatment of immune-mediated disorders.