Influence of gut microbiome on multiple myeloma: friend or foe?

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a malignancy of terminally differentiated plasma cells, which typically evolves over time from its precursor, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance. While the underlying mechanisms of this evolution remain elusive, immunomodulatory factors affecting the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment are suspected to play a role. There is an increasing evidence that the gut microbiome exerts an influence on its host's adaptive and innate immune systems, inflammatory pathways and the BM microenvironment. Dysbiosis, therefore, may impact tumorigenesis in MM. This article gives an overview of potential mechanisms by which the microbiome may influence the pathogenesis of MM, MM patients' responses to treatment and toxicities experienced by MM patients undergoing autologous transplant. It also discusses the potential role of the mycobiome in MM, a less studied component of the microbiome.