Food-borne trematodiases in Southeast Asia epidemiology, pathology, clinical manifestation and control.

The food-borne trematodiases are an important group of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Over 40 million people are infected with food-borne trematodes and 750 million (>10% of the world's population) are at risk of these NTDs. Here, we review the life cycles, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathology and pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention and control of the major food-borne trematodiases in Southeast Asia. We focus particularly on opisthorchiasis caused by Opisthorchis viverrini and clonorchiasis caused by Clonorchis sinensis, which people contract by ingestion of metacercariae in flesh of raw or undercooked freshwater fishes, on fascioliasis caused by Fasciola species, where infection arises from ingestion of metacercariae on water plants such as watercress, and on Paragonimus species, the lung flukes, which use freshwater crabs and other crustaceans as intermediate hosts. We also include information on the intestinal flukes Fasciolopsis buski, the echinostomes and the so-called 'minute intestinal flukes' of the family Heterophyidae. Ecological information, placing emphasis on reservoir hosts, intermediate snail hosts and secondary hosts where applicable, is also reviewed and research needs are highlighted.