Engineering human endometrial model systems in reproductive health and disease.

The human endometrium is a vital component of the female reproductive system that is essential for fertilization, embryo development and female health. However, due to significant ethical concerns and practical limitations associated with human subject research and species differences in animal models, it is highly required to develop in vitro biomimetic human models to facilitate the understanding of physiology and pathology of endometrium in biomedical research. In this review, we highlight recent progress in bioengineered technologies, including organs-on-chips, organoids, advanced biomaterials and bioprinting that enable the reconstruction of functional endometrial models in vitro. We summarize various bioengineering strategies developed to recapitulate key features of the human endometrium in both healthy and diseased states. Furthermore, we introduce the application of these in vitro models in studies of reproductive biology, pregnancy processes and disease mechanisms. Finally, we discuss current challenges and future opportunities in the development of more sophisticated in vitro human endometrial models for biomedical research.