State-of-the-Art Opinion Article on Ventilator-Induced Diaphragm Dysfunction: Update on Diagnosis, Clinical Course, and Future Treatment Options.

Evidence from both animal and human studies now supports the development of ventilator-induced diaphragm dysfunction (VIDD) starting as early as 24 h after initiation of mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit (ICU). However, although the concept of VIDD is now widely accepted, there remain several unanswered questions regarding its pathophysiology, rate of development, and (potentially) recovery after mechanical ventilation.This state-of-the-art opinion article briefly explains VIDD and provides an update on its clinical and prognostic relevance. It then focusses on state-of-the-art diagnostic approaches to determine diaphragm function, strength, and control (neural and peripheral), highlights knowledge gaps relevant to VIDD, and discusses the use of diaphragm pacing for VIDD prevention. It is suggested that future research projects in mechanically ventilated patients would ideally use both cortical and cervical phrenic nerve stimulation studies over time (including also diaphragm electromyography) as the gold standard techniques. This approach has not yet been utilized in a longitudinally designed study in the ICU. Application of these gold standard techniques would allow better understanding of the true pathophysiology and rate of development of VIDD. Notably, these techniques would be superior to diaphragm ultrasound, which yields surrogate markers of diaphragm function only without any direct measure of diaphragm strength or control. It is also suggested that such translational research would further advance understanding of diaphragm pacing as a very promising treatment option for VIDD.