Hepatic Macrophages in Chronic Hepatitis B: Balancing Immunity and Pathology.

Chronic HBV infection remains a global health challenge, driving liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Liver injury is primarily mediated by host immune responses rather than direct viral cytotoxicity. Macrophages, including Kupffer cells, play dual roles in antiviral defense and disease progression. HBV skews macrophages toward an M2-like, immunosuppressive phenotype, promoting viral persistence and fibrogenesis via cytokines such as Interleukin (IL)-10 and Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Therapeutic strategies targeting macrophage polarization, including Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and nanoparticle-based systems, are under investigation. Addressing macrophage heterogeneity and the immunosuppressive hepatic microenvironment using advanced models is essential. Modulating macrophages offers a promising avenue to control HBV, restore immune balance, and mitigate liver injury. This review highlights the central role of macrophages in chronic HBV infection and explores emerging therapeutic strategies.