Collaboration with behavioral health care facilities to implement systemwide tobacco control policies--California, 2012.

INTRODUCTION

We aimed to describe the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among American Indian adolescents and determine its association with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors.

METHODS

Our study population consisted of 307 adolescents (aged ≤20 years) participating in the Strong Heart Family Study with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) measured on samples collected during baseline examinations (2001-2003). We defined baseline prevalence of vitamin D deficiency as 25(OH)D ≤20 ng/mL. We evaluated outcomes related to obesity (BMI, waist circumference, wait-to-hip ratio, and body fat percentage), diabetes, cholesterol, and metabolic syndrome. We used generalized estimating equations to determine whether the prevalence of the outcomes differed according to vitamin D deficiency status, while controlling for covariates. To determine incidence, we conducted a follow-up examination a median 5.8 years after baseline (2006-2009) and a second follow-up a median of 13.3 years after baseline (2014-2018). We calculated incidence rates (IR) per 100 person-years for the total group and stratified by vitamin D deficiency status at baseline. Finally we used shared frailty cox proportional hazards models to determine if the risk of the outcomes differed according to vitamin D deficiency status, while controlling for covariates.

RESULTS

The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency was 50.8% at baseline, and it was associated with the prevalence of obesity, low HDL-C, and metabolic syndrome, while controlling for covariates. By the first follow-up, the IRs per 100 person-years were the following: obesity (5.03), diabetes (1.07), any dyslipidemia (10.80), and metabolic syndrome (3.31). By the second follow-up, the IR of diabetes was significantly higher among those with (vs without) baseline vitamin D deficiency (1.32 vs 0.68 per 100 person-years; P = .02), although the association was not significant after adjusting for covariates.

CONCLUSION

Vitamin D deficiency in adolescence may be associated with the CVD risk factors obesity, low HDL-C, and metabolic syndrome and may also contribute to the development of diabetes later in life.