Cell therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy: promises, challenges, and controversies.

Despite extensive studies, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a neuromuscular disorder caused by the lack of dystrophin, a key muscle structural protein, remains an incurable disease. One of the potential treatment options currently being investigated is cell therapy, although it has not yet been clinically established. Several strategies, including muscle satellite cells, mesoangioblasts (vessel-associated multipotent stem cells), and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived muscle cells, have emerged as tools for restoring dystrophin expression and regenerating damaged muscle tissue. Nevertheless, each of these approaches faces significant limitations, including poor cell engraftment, low delivery efficiency, and the risk of immune rejection. Furthermore, long-term safety, the possibility of tumorigenicity, and off-target effects must be rigorously evaluated. Importantly, the latter technology, utilizing cardiomyocytes differentiated from iPSC, holds the potential for addressing cardiomyopathy, the major cause of death of DMD patients. At the same time, several interventions using cells with claimed stem cell potential have emerged, raising both scientific and ethical concerns. This review summarizes recent advancements in the development of cell therapies for DMD, highlighting promising progress while critically analysing questionable approaches.