Palladium nanoparticles in lung cancer: Emerging strategies for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention.

Lung cancer treatment is often limited by poor therapeutic selectivity, systemic toxicity, and the development of resistance. Palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) have emerged as a promising nanoplatform due to their unique physicochemical properties, including high photothermal conversion efficiency, catalytic activity, and ease of surface functionalization. This review highlights recent advances in the design and biomedical application of PdNPs, with emphasis on how physicochemical parameters such as size, morphology, and surface chemistry influence cellular uptake and therapeutic efficacy. Key anticancer mechanisms are discussed, including reactive oxygen species generation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and photothermal-mediated tumor ablation. The potential of PdNPs in combinational strategies, particularly with chemotherapy and radiotherapy, is also examined to enhance treatment outcomes. Furthermore, targeted delivery approaches aimed at improving tumor specificity and minimizing off-target toxicity are critically addressed. Emerging diagnostic and theranostic applications, including imaging and biosensing, are also explored. Despite these promising attributes, challenges related to long-term toxicity, biodegradability, and clinical translation remain significant. Overall, PdNP-based systems represent a versatile and evolving strategy with substantial potential to improve lung cancer management.