Microbiome: a driver of pancreatic inflammation and tumorigenesis.

The human microbiome plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including immune responses, inflammation, gut permeability, and overall homeostasis. Recent studies have identified bacterial and fungal components in the tumor microenvironment of multiple malignancies, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). These intratumoral microbiomes drive tumorigenesis by activating oncogenic signaling cascades and reprogramming both innate and adaptive immune responses, ultimately establishing a protumorigenic niche. In this review, we highlight the advances, limitations, and challenges of studying the intratumoral microbiome and its cellular products in PDAC tumorigenesis, with a specific focus on their modulation of the immune axis. Finally, we evaluate existing and emerging therapeutic strategies, including microbiome-targeted drugs, antibiotics, probiotics, and engineered microbes, to disrupt protumorigenic microbial influences and improve clinical outcomes.