Genetic Interruption of PD-1/PD-L1 as an Alternative Means for Immune Checkpoint Blockade in Cancer: A Review.

Background/

Objectives

Immune checkpoints are critical regulatory pathways that maintain peripheral tolerance and prevent autoimmunity. Among these, the programmed death-1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) axis serves as a major inhibitory pathway that terminates T cell responses. While protein-based checkpoint blockade (ICB) targeting this axis has revolutionized clinical cancer therapy, its clinical efficacy is frequently limited by low response rates, immune-related adverse events (irAEs), and the emergence of adaptive resistance. To break through these bottlenecks, genetic interruption has emerged as a high-precision alternative to modulate the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway at the nucleotide level.

Methods

A comprehensive systematic review of literature was performed across major databases (PubMed, Web of Science), with a focus on high quality studies published up to 2026.

Results

Direct genomic disruption via CRISPR/Cas9 and post-transcriptional silencing through RNA interference can effectively neutralize inhibitory signaling at its source. Recent advances demonstrate that targeting upstream regulatory nodes-including metabolic checkpoints (e.g., lactate metabolism) and biophysical mechanisms (e.g., liquid-liquid phase separation)-provides superior transcriptional control over PD-L1. Furthermore, engineering CAR-T cells with multiplex gene editing (e.g., TCR/B2M/PD-1 knockout) or localized scFv secretion significantly enhances antitumor potency while reducing systemic toxicity. Innovations in organ-targeted lipid nanoparticles and stimuli-responsive biomimetic carriers further address the delivery barriers in solid tumors.

Conclusions

Gene therapy provides a high-precision platform for PD-1/PD-L1 modulation, offering a viable strategy to overcome adaptive resistance. Future clinical application depends on the refinement of safer editing tools, such as base editing, and the standardization of intelligent delivery systems to ensure controllable and scalable cancer immunotherapy.