An overview of biosensor advancements for detecting botulinum neurotoxins: Addressing food safety and biowarfare risks.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are lethal toxins produced by bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Ingestion of BoNTs contaminated foods causes botulism which affects individual's nervous system by blocking the release of neurotransmitters causing flaccid paralysis. This review article deciphers the comprehensive account on mechanism of action of BoNTs, pathogenicity, and various innovative analytical detection techniques of BoNTs in foods. Potential misuse of BoNT as a biowarfare agent is also a major concern. Hence, for the detection of deadly BoNTs various conventional techniques like mouse lethality bioassay (MLB), SNAP-25 assay, mouse phrenic nerve hemidiaphragm (MPN) test, non-lethal mouse flaccid paralysis assay (NFPA) and modern techniques (immunoassays, cell-based assay, nucleic acid-based methods, endopeptidase mass spectrometry assays) have been discussed. This article also provides a detailed account on biosensing technology for detecting BoNTs in foods. Moreover, future research efforts should be focused on the development of advanced new-age biosensors for automated detection and real time monitoring of botulinum neurotoxin toxicity in food. Integration of biosensors with quantum technology and lab-on-chip platforms is required for increasing their versatility and robust detection. The insights presented in the review aim towards providing future research directions and increase the vigilance against potential future threats.