Tonic for your GIN: gastrointestinal nematode immunomodulator vaccines.

No vaccines are currently available for any gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections of humans, despite a large global burden of disease. In livestock, limited helminth vaccines are available, while current anthelmintic treatments are waning in their effectiveness as resistance is developing. The reasons for the lack of vaccines are manifold but include the complexity of the parasite genomes, the lack of defined correlates of protection, and the immunomodulatory activities of GIN infections. In recent years, our knowledge of parasite immunomodulation has dramatically advanced. Here, we propose that vaccination approaches can be used to block either parasite immunomodulation or digestive processes, allowing effective ejection or starvation of these parasites. We compare this approach to vaccines against other pathogens and summarise data from rodent, livestock, and human infections.