Zoonotic Parasite Nanovaccines: Progress, Challenges, and Future Perspectives.

Parasitic infections remain major global health challenges, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Although traditional vaccines have made significant progress against parasites, limited success has been obtained due to the parasites' complex life cycles and immune evasion. Nanoparticle-based vaccines, including mRNA-lipid particles, polymeric particles, and virus-like particles (VLPs), offer a promising alternative, showing improved immunogenicity in trials. In this study, the recent advancements in nanoparticle-based vaccines for parasitic infections and the roles of various types of nanoparticles are summarized in detail. Furthermore, the existing challenges regarding the parasite nanovaccines, such as clinical, ethical, and regulatory hurdles, are analyzed, and the constructive perspectives for future studies are provided simultaneously. This review will contribute to the understanding of functions and the current status of parasite nanovaccines, prompting the development of next-generation parasite nanovaccines.