Oral surgery during Byzantine times.

The Byzantine World covers the eleven-century period between 323-1453 AD and was characterized by a comprehensive system of medicine based on the fundamental principles of Ancient Greek medicine. Several clinical entities, such as epulis, parulis, constrictions of the tongue (short frenum), sublingual ranula, jaws fractures and disclocations, oral fistulae were well-known and treated during the Byzantine period with primarily surgical, but also non-surgical, interventions. Tooth extractions and operations on the uvula were also popular. The variety of these operations, for which special dental instruments were used, demonstrates the high level of surgical knowledge among physicians in Byzantine times.